Direct link to breanna.christiansen's post What is the role of NAD+ , Posted 7 years ago. ATP synthase makes ATP from the proton gradient created in this way. Anaerobic conditions and acetyl CoA formation As the diagram shows, high levels of ATP inhibit phosphofructokinase (PFK), an early enzyme in glycolysis. I) 4 C. Net redox reaction in acetyl CoA formation and the citric acid cycle The energetically "downhill" movement of electrons through the chain causes pumping of protons into the intermembrane space by the first, third, and fourth complexes. Also within the stroma are stacked, flattened disks known as thylakoids which are defined by their thylakoid membranes. If the intermembrane space of the mitochondria was increased, I would think that respiration would be less efficient, because now the electrons have to cross a larger space and lose much more energy. [(CH3CO)2O]. Acetyl CoA and Oxaloacetic Acid combine to form a six-carbon molecule called Citric Acid (Citrate). PQA hands the electron off to a second plastoquinone (PQB), which waits for a second electron and collects two protons to become PQH2, also known as plastoquinol (Figure \(\PageIndex{9}\)). The number of ATP molecules generated from the catabolism of glucose varies. [(Cl3CCO)2O], [(CH3CO)2O]\left[ \left( \mathrm { CH } _ { 3 } \mathrm { CO } \right) _ { 2 } \mathrm { O } \right] Instead, it must hand its electrons off to a molecular shuttle system that delivers them, through a series of steps, to the electron transport chain. Direct link to Ivana - Science trainee's post `C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6, Posted 5 years ago. 1999-2023, Rice University. This flow of hydrogen ions across the membrane through ATP synthase is called chemiosmosis. Luckily, cellular respiration is not so scary once you get to know it. In glycolysis, the carbon-containing compound that functions as the electron donor is __________. 2GPs are converted into two PYRUVATE molecules releasing energy (2 x ATP). Why is the role NAD+ plays so important in our ability to use the energy we take in? TP synthesis in glycolysis: substrate-level phosphorylation As they are passed from one complex to another (there are a total of four), the electrons lose energy, and some of that energy is used to pump hydrogen ions from the mitochondrial matrix into the intermembrane space. Be sure you understand that process and why it happens. The space within the thylakoid membranes are termed the thylakoid spaces or thylakoid lumen. Phosphate located in the matrix is imported via the proton gradient, which is used to create more ATP. This electron must be replaced. Carbon dioxide is released and NADH is made. In this article, we'll examine oxidative phosphorylation in depth, seeing how it provides most of the ready chemical energy (ATP) used by the cells in your body. O b) It can occur only in the mitochondrion. This modulatory effect may be exercised via rhythmic systemic . The same pigments are used by green algae and land plants. b) glycolysis, citric acid cycle, electron transport chain, pyruvate oxidation. Course Hero uses AI to attempt to automatically extract content from documents to surface to you and others so you can study better, e.g., in search results, to enrich docs, and more. There are four complexes composed of proteins, labeled I through IV in Figure 4.15c, and the aggregation of these four complexes, together with associated mobile, accessory electron carriers, is called the electron transport chain. The electron transport chain would speed up, and the gradient would become stronger, The electron transport chain would stop, and the gradient would decrease, Both the electron transport chain and the gradient would stay the same, The electron transport chain would be re-routed through complex II, and the gradient would become weaker. d. NADH Energy from glycolysis If gramicidin is added to an actively respiring muscle cell, how would it affect the rates of electron transport, proton pumping, and ATP synthesis in oxidative phosphorylation? if glycolysis requires ATP to start how did the first glycolysis in history happen? Approximately how much more free energy is supplied to the electron transport chain by NADH than by FADH2? From the following compounds involved in cellular respiration, choose those that are the net inputs and net outputs of acetyl CoA formation. In the fourth protein complex, the electrons are accepted by oxygen, the terminal acceptor. J.B. is 31 years old and a dispatcher with a local oil and gas company. Phosphorylation is the addition of a phosphoryl (PO 3) group to a molecule. d) All of the above. The eight steps of the cycle are a series of chemical reactions that produces two carbon dioxide molecules, one ATP molecule (or an equivalent), and reduced forms (NADH and FADH2) of NAD+ and FAD+, important coenzymes in the cell. In most cases, a byproduct of the process is oxygen, which is released from water in the capture process. When a compound accepts (gains) electrons, that compound becomes ________. When it states in "4. As electrons move energetically downhill, the complexes capture the released energy and use it to pump H, Like many other ions, protons can't pass directly through the phospholipid bilayer of the membrane because its core is too hydrophobic. What Are the net inputs and net outputs of oxidative phosphorylation? Just like the cell membrane, the mitochondrion membranes have transport proteins imbedded in them that bring in and push out materials. In photosynthesis, the energy comes from the light of the sun. It does this, giving its electron within picoseconds to pheophytin (Figure \(\PageIndex{8}\)). 8. In plants and algae, the pigments are held in a very organized fashion complexes called antenna proteins that help funnel energy, through resonance energy transfer, to the reaction center chlorophylls. This reaction is called photo-induced charge separation and it is a unique means of transforming light energy into chemical forms. Previous question Next question. A single glucose molecule consumes 2 ATP molecules and produces 4 ATP, 2 NADH, and two pyruvates. OpenStax is part of Rice University, which is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit. Oxidative Phosphorylation: Oxidative phosphorylation is the final metabolic step of cellular respiration that is used to produce. Cellular respiration is oxidative metabolism of glucose which takes place in mitochondria and in the cell. In eukaryotic cells, the pyruvate molecules produced at the end of glycolysis are transported into mitochondria, which are sites of cellular respiration. Direct link to Medha Nagasubramanian's post Is oxidative phosphorylat, Posted 3 years ago. Knockdown of ZCRB1 impaired the proliferation, invasion, migration, and colony formation in HCC cell lines. The levels of glycolysis, pyruvate metabolism, oxidative phosphorylation, amino acid metabolism and lipid metabolism remained low in E7, 25 which was different from progressive cancer, 22, 25, 41 indicating that intramucosal ESCC may not initiate a large-scale cell growth and proliferation or suffer from nutrient and oxygen deprivation. The electron transport chain is a series of protein complexes and electron carrier molecules found within the mitochondrial membrane in eukaryotic cells. C) 6 C In chloroplasts, the light reactions of photosynthesis involving electron transfer occur in the thylakoid membranes (Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\)). The LibreTexts libraries arePowered by NICE CXone Expertand are supported by the Department of Education Open Textbook Pilot Project, the UC Davis Office of the Provost, the UC Davis Library, the California State University Affordable Learning Solutions Program, and Merlot. Eventually, the electrons are passed to oxygen, which combines with protons to form water. From the following compounds involved in cellular respiration, choose those that are the net inputs and net outputs of the citric acid cycle. Cellular locations of the four stages of cellular respiration, 1. such as oxidative phosphorylation, MYC targets, and DNA repair. Most of the ATP generated during the aerobic catabolism of glucose, however, is not generated directly from these pathways. is the final electron acceptor of the electron transport chain. Direct link to bart0241's post Yes glycolysis requires e, Posted 3 years ago. Where does it occur? How is ATP produced in cellular respiration? It takes two electrons, 1/2 O2, and 2 H+ to form one water molecule. Pyruvate travels into the mitochondrial matrix and is converted to a two-carbon molecule bound to coenzyme A, called acetyl CoA. The hydroxyethyl group is oxidized to an acetyl group, and the electrons are picked up by NAD +, forming NADH. The high-energy electrons from NADH will be used later to generate ATP. Drag the labels on the left onto the diagram to identify the compounds that couple each stage. In poorly oxygenated tissue, glycolysis produces 2 ATP by shunting pyruvate away from mitochondria and through the lactate dehydrogenase reaction. These reactions take place in the cytosol. As an Amazon Associate we earn from qualifying purchases. The input involved in glycolysis is two ATP (Adenosine triphosphate), two NAD+ and one glucose. The ability of plants to switch between non-cyclic and cyclic photosystems allows them to make the proper ratio of ATP and NADPH they need for assimilation of carbon in the dark phase of photosynthesis. Once the electron donor in glycolysis gives up its electrons, it is oxidized to a compound called ___________. Direct link to tyersome's post The individual reactions , Posted 6 years ago. NADH -- Fe-S of Complex I -- Q -- Fe-S of Complex III -- Cyt c-- Cyt a of Complex IV -- O2, Chapter 8 Dynamic Study Module: An Introducti, David N. Shier, Jackie L. Butler, Ricki Lewis, John David Jackson, Patricia Meglich, Robert Mathis, Sean Valentine, Jane B. Reece, Lisa A. Urry, Michael L. Cain, Peter V Minorsky, Robert B Jackson, Steven A. Wasserman. the source of the electrons H2O for photosynthesis versus NADH/FADH2 for oxidative phosphorylation, direction of proton pumping into the thylakoid space of the chloroplasts versus outside the matrix of the mitochondrion, movement of protons during ATP synthesis out of the thylakoid space in photosynthesis versus into the mitochondrial matrix in oxidative phosphorylation. Besides the path described above for movement of electrons through PS I, plants have an alternative route that electrons can take. Accessibility StatementFor more information contact us atinfo@libretexts.orgor check out our status page at https://status.libretexts.org. This flow of electrons allows the electron transport chain to pump protons to one side of the mitochondrial membrane. Aren't internal and cellular respiration the same thing? Inputs and Outputs Output is the information produced by a system or process from a specific input. Net Input: NADH, ADP, O Net Output: NAD, ATP, CO and Water Not Input or Output: Pyruvate, Glucose, Acetyl CoA, Coenzyme A and CO. To log in and use all the features of Khan Academy, please enable JavaScript in your browser. The protons flow back into the matrix through an enzyme called ATP synthase, making ATP. is 29 years old and a self-employed photographer. This. Sort the statements into the appropriate bin depending on whether or not they correctly describe some aspect of substrate-level phosphorylation in glycolysis. Last, it should be noted that photosynthesis actually has two phases, referred to as the light cycle (described above) and the dark cycle, which is a set of chemical reactions that captures CO2 from the atmosphere and fixes it, ultimately into glucose. The ATP that is generated in glycolysis is produced by substrate-level phosphorylation, a very different mechanism than the one used to produce ATP during oxidative phosphorylation. Acetyl CoA and Oxalo, Posted 3 years ago. [Click here for a diagram showing ATP production], http://www.dbriers.com/tutorials/2012/04/the-electron-transport-chain-simplified/. b. NADH Cellular respiration is one of the most elegant, majestic, and fascinating metabolic pathways on earth. The energy from this oxidation is stored in a form that is used by most other energy-requiring reactions in cells. The electrons ultimately reduce O2 to water in the final step of electron transport. The uneven distribution of H+ ions across the membrane establishes an electrochemical gradient, owing to the H+ ions positive charge and their higher concentration on one side of the membrane. Direct link to markemuller's post It says above that NADH c, Posted 6 years ago. In the oxidation of pyruvate to acetyl CoA, one carbon atom is released as CO2. This step regenerates NAD+ and FAD (the oxidized carriers) for use in the citric acid cycle. At the end of the electron transport chain, oxygen accepts electrons and takes up protons to form water. In the Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle), would the four-carbon molecule that combines with Acetyl CoA be Oxaloacetic acid? Energy from ATP and electrons from NADPH are used to reduce CO2 and build sugars, which are the ultimate energy storage directly arising from photosynthesis. Finally, the electrons are passed to oxygen, which accepts them along with protons to form water. Direct link to Peony's post well, seems like scientis, Posted 6 years ago. Anaerobic glycolysis serves as a means of energy production in cells that cannot produce adequate energy through oxidative phosphorylation. Direct link to Ivana - Science trainee's post The free energy from the , Posted 6 years ago. Medical geneticists can be board certified by the American Board of Medical Genetics and go on to become associated with professional organizations devoted to the study of mitochondrial disease, such as the Mitochondrial Medicine Society and the Society for Inherited Metabolic Disease. How much H2O is produced is the electron transport chain? if the volume of the intermembrane space was increased, what effect would this have on the function of a mitochondrion? start text, N, A, D, end text, start superscript, plus, end superscript, start text, F, A, D, H, end text, start subscript, 2, end subscript, 2, e, start superscript, minus, end superscript, 2, start text, H, end text, start superscript, plus, end superscript, start text, H, end text, start superscript, plus, end superscript. The electron transport chain is present in multiple copies in the inner mitochondrial membrane of eukaryotes and in the plasma membrane of prokaryotes. Describe the relationships of glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation in terms of their inputs and outputs. Hm. A cell stays small to allow easier transport of molecules and charged particles from organelles. Direct link to Ashley Jane's post Where do the hydrogens go, Posted 5 years ago. Base inputs and outputs on one glucose molecule. ATP levels would fall at first, decreasing the inhibition of PFK and increasing the rate of ATP production. Direct link to Juliana's post Aren't internal and cellu, Posted 3 years ago. A) 2 C Based on a lot of experimental work, it appears that four H. With this information, we can do a little inventory for the breakdown of one molecule of glucose: One number in this table is still not precise: the ATP yield from NADH made in glycolysis. In fermentation, the NADH produced by glycolysis is used to reduce the pyruvate produced by glycolysis to either lactate or ethanol. Use your knowledge of the first three stages of cellular respiration to determine which explanation is correct. Separate biochemical reactions involving the assimilation of carbon dioxide to make glucose are referred to as the Calvin cycle, also sometimes referred to as the dark reactions. All the components of the chain are embedded in or attached to the inner mitochondrial membrane. Carbon atoms in acetyl CoA formation and the citric acid cycle The development of celluar respiration began as a simple inefficient system progressing to it's current incarnation. Failure in oxidative phosphorylation causes the deregulation of ATP-synthase activities in mitochondria and contributes to the elevation of oxidative stress and cell . Without enough ATP, cells cant carry out the reactions they need to function, and, after a long enough period of time, may even die. The interior of a leaf, below the epidermis is made up of photosynthesis tissue called mesophyll, which can contain up to 800,000 chloroplasts per square millimeter. The similarities of photophosphorylation to oxidative phosphorylation include: In some ways, the movement of electrons in chloroplasts during photosynthesis is opposite that of electron transport in mitochondria. The two acetyl-carbon atoms will eventually be released on later turns of the cycle; in this way, all six carbon atoms from the original glucose molecule will be eventually released as carbon dioxide. Which of these statements is the correct explanation for this observation? They absorb photons with high efficiency so that whenever a pigment in the photosynthetic reaction center absorbs a photon, an electron from the pigment is excited and transferred to another molecule almost instantaneously. Pyruvate oxidation. Describe the relationships of glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation in terms of their inputs and outputs. In aerobic respiration, 38 ATP molecules are formed per glucose molecule. In the brown fat cells, How many ATP do we get per glucose in cellular respiration? The energy from this oxidation is stored in a form that is used by most other energy-requiring reactions in cells. When the protein gramicidin is integrated into a membrane, an H+ channel forms and the membrane becomes very permeable to protons (H+ ions). For example, sugars other than glucose are fed into the glycolytic pathway for energy extraction. Correct: Drag the labels from the left (which represent numbers of carbon atoms) onto the diagram to identify the number of carbon atoms in each intermediate in acetyl CoA formation and the citric acid cycle. Two carbon dioxide molecules are released on each turn of the cycle; however, these do not contain the same carbon atoms contributed by the acetyl group on that turn of the pathway. Part of this is considered an aerobic pathway (oxygen-requiring) because the NADH and FADH2 produced must transfer their electrons to the next pathway in the system, which will use oxygen. Direct link to Dallas Huggins's post The new Campbell Biology , Posted 6 years ago. Citric Acid Cycle output. The oxygen liberated in the process is a necessary for respiration of all aerobic life forms on Earth. Direct link to yejikwon00's post Where did all the hydroge, Posted 5 years ago. The electron transport chain is a series of proteins embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Direct link to Chaarvee Gulia's post I don't quite understand , Posted 5 years ago. It is easier to remove electrons and produce CO2 from compounds with three or more carbon atoms than from a two-carbon compound such as acetyl CoA. The NADH generated from glycolysis cannot easily enter mitochondria. The electron transport chain about to start churning out ATP. We also acknowledge previous National Science Foundation support under grant numbers 1246120, 1525057, and 1413739. Drag each compound to the appropriate bin. start superscript, 2, comma, 3, comma, 4, end superscript. These atoms were originally part of a glucose molecule. Wikipedia. You must remeber that life on this planet has been evolving for billions of years, it is highly unlikely that the originating system resembles the current system. Use of the lower-output FADH 2 may be a way to protect against poisons or mutations that might damage NADH usage (an internal redundant system). These high-energy carriers will connect with the last portion of aerobic respiration to produce ATP molecules. If oxygen is not present, this transfer does not occur. Phosphorylation Definition. Assume that a muscle cell's demand for ATP under anaerobic conditions remains the same as it was under aerobic conditions. So are the hydrogen ions released by those electron carriers are going to be used for the gradient and also for the water formation? Model-constructed genes affected the phosphorylation of mTOR and AKT in both Huh7 and Hep3B cells. the microbial world. Answer: Net inputs are : NADH, ADP, O2 Net outpus are : NAD+, ATP, water Explanation: These compounds are involved in cellular respiration- Coenzyme A ,NADH ,ADP ,Acetyl CoA ,CO ,Glucose ,O ,ATP ,Pyruvate and water. Pheophytin passes the electron on to protein-bound plastoquinones . Instead, they are coupled together because one or more outputs from one stage functions as an input to another stage. For example, the number of hydrogen ions that the electron transport chain complexes can pump through the membrane varies between species. Photons from the sun interact with chlorophyll molecules in reaction centers in the chloroplasts (Figures \(\PageIndex{1}\) and \(\PageIndex{2}\)) of plants or membranes of photosynthetic bacteria. Describe the relationships of glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation in terms of their inputs and outputs. What is substrate level. Direct link to Eva Klein's post I have a question Whic, Posted 6 years ago. Are the protons tansported into mitochondria matix and later pumped out by ETC or intermembrane space to form electrochemical gradient, or are they left in cytosol? After four electrons have been donated by the OEC to PS II, the OEC extracts four electrons from two water molecules, liberating oxygen and dumping four protons into the thylakoid space, thus contributing to the proton gradient. 2 ATPs are used up by glycolysis this then begins the oxidative process of glycolysis. You have just read about two pathways in glucose catabolismglycolysis and the citric acid cyclethat generate ATP. It would be released as heat, and interestingly enough, some types of cells deliberately use the proton gradient for heat generation rather than ATP synthesis. Yes. All of the electrons that enter the transport chain come from NADH and FADH, Beyond the first two complexes, electrons from NADH and FADH. -The enyzmes involved in ATP synthesis must be attached to a membrane to produce ATP. One ATP (or an equivalent) is also made in each cycle. Electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation is the third and final step in aerobic cellular respiration. -An enzyme is required in order for the reaction to occur Defend your response. Complexes I, III, and IV use energy released as electrons move from a higher to a lower energy level to pump protons out of the matrix and into the intermembrane space, generating a proton gradient. NADH is no longer converted to NAD+, which is needed for the first three stages of cellular respiration. To summarize the light dependent reactions, let ' s look at the inputs and outputs: INPUTS: OUTPUTS: Light Energy: ATP: Water (H 2 O) NADPH : Oxygen Molecules (O 2) Study how the electrons are made available and what happens to them. Ferredoxin then passes the electron off to the last protein in the system known as Ferredoxin:NADP+ oxidoreductase, which gives the electron and a proton to NADP+, creating NADPH. Other cells of your body have a shuttle system that delivers the electrons via NADH, resulting in the production of 5 ATP. Another factor that affects the yield of ATP molecules generated from glucose is that intermediate compounds in these pathways are used for other purposes. Thus, electrons are picked up on the inside of the mitochondria by either NAD+ or FAD+. Labels may be used more than once. harvesting energy of the proton gradient by making ATP with the help of an ATP synthase. The coupled stages of cellular respiration Simple diagram of the electron transport chain. Label the arrows indicating electrons carried by NADH. In organisms that perform cellular respiration, glycolysis is the first stage of this process. In the absence of oxygen, electron transport stops. Inputs (per molecule of glucose): 2 pyruvates, 2 CoA, 2 NAD+ Outputs (per molecule of glucose): 2 acetyl-CoA, 2 CO2, 2 NADH Pyruvate oxidation occurs in the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells. .For example, oxidative phosphorylation generates 26 of the 30 molecules of ATP that are formed when glucose is completely oxidized to CO 2 and H 2 O. If the compound is not involved in glycolysis, drag it to the "not input or output" bin. Science Biology In which order do the stages of aerobic cellular respiration occur? What are the inputs of oxidative phosphorylation? In oxidative phosphorylation, the energy comes from electrons produced by oxidation of biological molecules. Function. The entirety of this process is called oxidative phosphorylation. These reactions take place in specialized protein complexes located in the inner membrane of the mitochondria of eukaryotic organisms and on the inner part of the cell membrane of prokaryotic organisms. Jan 9, 2023 OpenStax. The electron transport chain (Figure 4.19 a) is the last component of aerobic respiration and is the only part of metabolism that uses atmospheric oxygen. Coupling between respiration and phosphorylation is not fully . How does oxidative phosphorylation occur? Two net ATP are made in glycolysis, and another two ATP (or energetically equivalent GTP) are made in the citric acid cycle. Such a compound is often referred to as an electron acceptor. oxidative phosphorylation input. Where do the hydrogens go? What are the electron carriers in oxidative phosphorylation? Direct link to tyersome's post Remember that all aqueous, Posted 6 years ago. Direct link to Abdul Mannan's post How much electron NADH & . The entire textbook is available for free from the authors at http://biochem.science.oregonstate.edu/content/biochemistry-free-and-easy. This is the primary step in cellular respiration. But have you ever wondered why thats the case, or what exactly your body does with all that oxygen? Yes glycolysis requires energy to run the reaction. The net inputs for citric acid cycle is Acetyl, COA, NADH, ADP. The movement of electrons through this scheme in plants requires energy from photons in two places to lift the energy of the electrons sufficiently. Where did the net yield go down? Remains the same: proton pumping rate, electron transport rate, rate of oxygen uptake Glucose utilization would increase a lot. In each transfer of an electron through the electron transport chain, the electron loses energy, but with some transfers, the energy is stored as potential energy by using it to pump hydrogen ions across the inner mitochondrial membrane into the intermembrane space, creating an electrochemical gradient. FADH2 in the matrix deposits electrons at Complex II, turning into FAD and releasing 2 H+. The ultimate replacement source of electrons is water, but water must lose four electrons and PS II can only accept one at a time. Feedback inhibition enables cells to adjust their rate of cellular respiration to match their demand for ATP. is a multi-protein complex within the electron transport chain. During acetyl CoA formation and the citric acid cycle, all of the carbon atoms that enter cellular respiration in the glucose molecule are released in the form of CO2. are licensed under a, Citric Acid Cycle and Oxidative Phosphorylation, Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells, The Light-Dependent Reactions of Photosynthesis, Biotechnology in Medicine and Agriculture, Diversity of Microbes, Fungi, and Protists, Waterford's Energy Flow through Ecosystems. How would anaerobic conditions (when no O2 is present) affect the rate of electron transport and ATP production during oxidative phosphorylation? The inputs (reactants) of pyruvate oxidation are pyruvate, NAD+, and Coenzyme A. This might seem wasteful, but it's an important strategy for animals that need to keep warm. Indeed, it is believed that essentially all of the oxygen in the atmosphere today is the result the splitting of water in photosynthesis over the many eons that the process has existed. What does substrate level phosphorylation means? Oxygen is what allows the chain to continue and keep producing ATP. Why is the citric acid cycle a cyclic pathway rather than a linear pathway? At this point, the light cycle is complete - water has been oxidized, ATP has been created, and NADPH has been made. How do biological systems get electrons to go both ways? Note that two types of electron carriers are involved. is a prosthetic group present in several components of the electron transport chain. In the matrix, NADH and FADH2 deposit their electrons in the chain (at the first and second complexes of the chain, respectively). What is the correct order of electron transport compounds from best electron donor to best electron acceptor? B) 6 C The stages of cellular respiration include glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, the citric acid or Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. As a result, the rate of cellular respiration, and thus ATP production, decreases. This is the reason we must breathe to draw in new oxygen. However, glycolysis doesn't require oxygen, and many anaerobic organismsorganisms that do . As it turns out, the reason you need oxygen is so your cells can use this molecule during oxidative phosphorylation, the final stage of cellular respiration.
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